The Ketogenic Diet: A Comprehensive Review of Its Benefits, Potential Adverse Effects, and Nutritional Sources

1. Introduction

The ketogenic diet (KD) is a high‑fat, moderate‑protein, low‑carbohydrate eating pattern that induces a metabolic state known as ketosis. In ketosis, the liver converts fatty acids into ketone bodies—β‑hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate, and acetone—which serve as alternative energy substrates for tissues such as brain, heart, and skeletal muscle. Historically developed in the 1920s to treat refractory epilepsy, KD has since been explored for a wide range of conditions including metabolic disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, obesity, and certain cancers.

Cholesterol: Functions, Clinical Manifestations, and Dietary Sources

1. Introduction

Cholesterol is a sterol lipid that plays pivotal roles in human physiology. Although often vilified for its association with cardiovascular disease (CVD), cholesterol is indispensable for cellular integrity, hormone synthesis, bile acid formation, and vitamin D production. A nuanced understanding of its benefits, pathological consequences, and dietary origins is essential for clinicians, researchers, and public‑health practitioners alike.

2. Physiological Roles of Cholesterol

3. Cholesterol Homeostasis

The body maintains cholesterol levels through a balance of intake, synthesis, absorption, transport, and excretion.

The Multifaceted Role of Zinc in Human Health

A comprehensive review for a science‑and‑technology audience

1. Introduction

Zinc (Zn) is an essential trace element that participates in more than 300 enzymatic reactions and plays pivotal roles in cellular proliferation, signal transduction, gene expression, and immune competence. Although required only in minute amounts—approximately 8 mg/day for adult women and 11 mg/day for adult men—the importance of maintaining adequate zinc status cannot be overstated. This review synthesises current evidence on the physiological functions of zinc, its health benefits, clinical manifestations of deficiency, and dietary strategies to optimise intake.

Artemisinin: A Promising Anticancer Agent – Mechanisms, Clinical Evidence, and Dietary Sources

1. Introduction

Artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Artemisia annua (sweet wormwood), has long been celebrated for its antimalarial efficacy. In recent decades, an expanding body of pre‑clinical and early clinical studies has highlighted its potential as a multi‑target anticancer agent. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the mechanisms by which artemisinin exerts cytotoxic effects on malignant cells, summarizes evidence from laboratory and human trials, discusses adverse events that may arise during therapy, and outlines dietary sources that could contribute to therapeutic exposure.

Ivermectin in Oncology: Current Evidence, Potential Therapeutic Roles, and Practical Considerations

1. Introduction

Ivermectin is a macrocyclic lactone originally developed as an antiparasitic agent for veterinary use and subsequently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for human parasitic infections such as onchocerciasis and strongyloidiasis. Over the past decade, a growing body of pre‑clinical research has suggested that ivermectin may exert anticancer effects through diverse mechanisms—ranging from inhibition of oncogenic signaling pathways to induction of apoptosis in malignant cells. Despite this enthusiasm, data from human clinical trials remain sparse and largely exploratory. The following review synthesizes current knowledge on ivermectin’s potential antineoplastic properties, summarizes reported benefits and adverse events, clarifies the lack of a dietary source for the drug itself, and discusses practical issues related to its use in oncology.

Fenbendazole: Potential Anticancer Properties, Clinical Evidence, and Dietary Considerations

1. Introduction

Fenbendazole is a benzimidazole anthelmintic widely used in veterinary medicine to treat helminth infections in livestock, poultry, and companion animals. In recent years it has attracted attention from the oncology community due to reports of its ability to inhibit tumor cell proliferation in vitro and reduce tumor growth in animal models. This article reviews the current evidence for fenbendazole’s anticancer activity, discusses potential mechanisms of action, outlines clinical observations, and examines the relevance of dietary exposure.

Magnesium Glycinate: Clinical Profile, Symptomatology, Therapeutic Advantages, and Dietary Sources

1. Introduction

Magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral in the human body and serves as a cofactor for over 300 enzymatic reactions that govern energy metabolism, protein synthesis, neuronal excitability, and vascular tone. Among its many organic complexes, magnesium glycinate (also referred to as magnesium bisglycinate) has emerged as one of the most bioavailable forms available commercially. This review provides a comprehensive examination of the pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, potential adverse effects, and dietary sources of magnesium glycinate, with an emphasis on evidence-based data suitable for publication in science‑and‑technology public accounts.

Bromelain: Clinical Profile, Therapeutic Potential, Symptomatology, and Dietary Sources

1. Introduction

Bromelain is a heterogeneous group of proteolytic enzymes predominantly extracted from the stem, fruit, and leaves of Ananas comosus (pineapple). Since the mid‑20th century, bromelain has attracted scientific interest due to its anti‑inflammatory, fibrinolytic, antithrombotic, and immunomodulatory properties. The present review synthesizes current evidence on the pharmacological benefits of bromelain, its adverse symptom profile, and the principal food sources that deliver clinically relevant doses.

Nattokinase: Mechanisms, Clinical Benefits, and Dietary Sources

Abstract

Nattokinase is a serine protease extracted from the Japanese fermented soybean product natto. Over the past two decades, pre‑clinical and clinical investigations have suggested that nattokinase exerts potent fibrinolytic activity, improves endothelial function, and may confer protective effects against cardiovascular disease. This review synthesizes current evidence on the biochemical mechanisms underlying these actions, summarizes key therapeutic benefits observed in human studies, discusses potential adverse events and contraindications, and highlights practical dietary sources for achieving effective plasma concentrations.

Vitamin D₃: Clinical Significance, Symptomatology, and Dietary Sources

1. Introduction

Vitamin D is a fat‑soluble secosteroid that functions as a hormone regulating calcium–phosphate homeostasis and modulating immune responses. Vitamin D exists in two major forms: vitamin D₂ (ergocalciferol) from plant sources and vitamin D₃ (cholecalciferol) synthesized endogenously in the skin upon ultraviolet‑B irradiation of 7‑dehydrocholesterol, as well as obtained from animal‑based foods. Vitamin D₃ has higher bioavailability and a longer half‑life than D₂, making it the preferred form for supplementation and fortification.

Vitamin K₂: Clinical Significance, Symptomatology, and Dietary Sources

1. Introduction

Vitamin K is a fat‑soluble micronutrient traditionally recognized for its indispensable role in haemostasis through the γ‑carboxylation of clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X. Within this family, two distinct chemical forms—vitamin K₁ (phylloquinone) and vitamin K₂ (menaquinones)—exhibit divergent metabolic pathways, tissue distribution, and physiological actions. While K₁ is predominantly derived from green leafy vegetables and primarily supports coagulation, K₂ is synthesized by intestinal microbiota and present in fermented foods; it exerts broader systemic effects, notably on bone metabolism, vascular health, and cellular signaling.

Vitamin B12: Clinical Significance, Therapeutic Potential, and Manifestations of Deficiency

1. Introduction

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is a water‑soluble micronutrient essential for numerous biochemical pathways that underpin human health. Its unique cobalt‑containing core allows it to act as a cofactor for two critical enzymes: methylmalonyl‑CoA mutase and methionine synthase. These reactions are pivotal for energy metabolism, DNA synthesis, and nervous system integrity. Because of its central role in cellular physiology, vitamin B12 deficiency has been linked with a spectrum of clinical conditions ranging from hematologic disorders to neuropsychiatric manifestations.

Vitamin B₂ (Riboflavin): Comprehensive Review of Its Biological Roles, Clinical Significance, and Symptomatology

1. Introduction

Riboflavin, known scientifically as vitamin B₂, is a water‑soluble member of the B‑vitamin family that participates in critical metabolic pathways. Since its discovery in the early twentieth century, riboflavin has been recognized for its essentiality in cellular energy production, antioxidant defense, and the maintenance of healthy mucous membranes. This review synthesizes current evidence regarding the biochemical functions of vitamin B₂, outlines clinical conditions associated with both deficiency and excess, and discusses practical implications for nutrition and public health.

Vitamin B₃ (Niacin): Clinical Significance, Therapeutic Indications, and Adverse Effects

1. Introduction

Vitamin B₃, also known as niacin (nicotinic acid) or nicotinamide, is an essential water‑soluble nutrient that participates in more than 400 enzymatic reactions involving cellular energy metabolism, DNA repair, and neurotransmitter synthesis. Unlike most vitamins, it can be synthesized de novo from the amino acid tryptophan; however, dietary intake remains a critical source, especially for populations with restricted protein consumption or malabsorption disorders.

Vitamin B₅ (Pantothenic Acid): Clinical Significance, Therapeutic Potential, and Symptomatology

1. Introduction

Pantothenic acid—commonly referred to as vitamin B₅—is a water‑soluble member of the B‑vitamin complex that plays an indispensable role in cellular metabolism. Unlike most other vitamins, it is ubiquitously present in both plant and animal tissues; consequently, deficiencies are rare in well‑balanced diets. Nevertheless, emerging evidence indicates that subclinical insufficiency may contribute to a spectrum of metabolic, neuropsychiatric, and dermatological disorders. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the biochemical functions of vitamin B₅, delineates its therapeutic benefits across diverse clinical conditions, and outlines characteristic symptoms associated with deficiency.

The Role of Folic Acid (Vitamin B9) in Human Health: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Folic acid—also called vitamin B9—is a water‑soluble B‑vitamin essential for nucleic acid synthesis, amino‑acid metabolism, and methylation reactions. Although often perceived merely as an “antioxidant,” its biochemical functions are diverse and pivotal to numerous physiological systems. This review synthesizes current evidence on the health benefits of folate, delineates clinical manifestations of deficiency, and discusses therapeutic strategies for supplementation in various populations.

Vitamin C – Biological Functions, Clinical Benefits, and Safety Considerations

1. Introduction

Ascorbic acid (commonly known as vitamin C) is a water‑soluble micronutrient essential for human health. Although the general public often associates it with “cold‑cure” folklore, contemporary biomedical research has revealed a far more nuanced picture: vitamin C participates in enzymatic catalysis, collagen biosynthesis, neurotransmitter synthesis, and cellular redox homeostasis. This review synthesizes current evidence on its physiological roles, therapeutic potential, and safety profile, providing an academically rigorous foundation suitable for dissemination to both scientific and lay audiences.

Vitamin D: Clinical Significance, Therapeutic Potential, and Deficiency Manifestations

1. Introduction

Vitamin D is a fat‑soluble secosteroid hormone that has long been recognized for its pivotal role in calcium–phosphate homeostasis and bone metabolism. In recent decades, an expanding body of evidence has illuminated its pleiotropic effects on the immune system, cardiovascular health, metabolic regulation, and even neuropsychiatric function. Consequently, vitamin D deficiency has become a global public‑health concern, with prevalence estimates ranging from 20 % to over 80 % in certain populations. This review synthesizes current knowledge regarding the therapeutic benefits of adequate vitamin D status, delineates the clinical spectrum of deficiency, and highlights gaps that warrant further investigation.

Vitamin E: Clinical Significance, Therapeutic Potential, and Associated Adverse Manifestations

1. Introduction

Vitamin E refers to a family of eight fat‑soluble compounds (α-, β-, γ-, δ-tocopherols and tocotrienols) that share a chromanol ring and a hydrophobic side chain. Among them, α‑tocopherol is the most biologically active form in humans, largely due to its preferential retention by hepatic α‑Tocopherol Transfer Protein (α‑TTP). The antioxidant, anti‑inflammatory, and membrane‑stabilizing properties of vitamin E have prompted extensive research into its role in chronic disease prevention and treatment. This review synthesizes current evidence on the clinical benefits of vitamin E, delineates the mechanisms underlying these effects, and discusses documented adverse events associated with both deficiency and supraphysiologic supplementation.

Vitamin K: Biological Functions, Clinical Significance, and Common Deficiency Manifestations

1. Introduction

Vitamin K is a fat‑soluble group of compounds that plays an indispensable role in haemostasis, bone metabolism, vascular health, and cellular signalling. The two principal naturally occurring forms are phylloquinone (vitamin K₁), obtained mainly from green leafy vegetables, and menaquinones (vitamins K₂), produced by intestinal microbiota and present in fermented foods such as natto and cheese. Although historically recognised for its coagulation function, contemporary research has expanded the scope of vitamin K to include bone integrity, arterial calcification inhibition, and modulation of inflammatory pathways.

Vitamin A: Biological Significance, Clinical Benefits, and Deficiency Manifestations

1. Introduction

Vitamin A is a fat‑soluble micronutrient belonging to the retinoid family. Its biological activities stem from its ability to act as a ligand for nuclear receptors (retinoic acid receptors, RARs; retinoid X receptors, RXRs) and as a precursor of retinaldehyde, which participates in visual phototransduction. Because of these diverse roles, vitamin A is essential for embryonic development, maintenance of epithelial integrity, immune modulation, and cellular differentiation.

Vitamin B₆ (Pyridoxine): Biological Significance, Clinical Benefits, and Deficiency Manifestations

1. Introduction

Vitamin B₆ is a water‑soluble member of the B‑vitamin complex that exists in three interchangeable forms—pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and pyridoxine—collectively referred to as pyridoxals. In vivo, these vitamers are converted into the active coenzyme pyridoxal‑5′‑phosphate (PLP), which serves as a catalytic prosthetic group for over 140 enzymatic reactions in human metabolism. Because of its central role in amino acid catabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, hemoglobin formation, and immune modulation, vitamin B₆ is often termed “the master coenzyme.”

Vitamin B₁ (Thiamine): Clinical Significance, Physiological Roles, and Clinical Manifestations

1. Introduction

Thiamine (vitamin B₁) is a water‑soluble micronutrient that plays a pivotal role in cellular energy metabolism and neural function. Because it functions as an essential cofactor for several key enzymes involved in carbohydrate oxidation, its deficiency can precipitate a spectrum of clinical syndromes ranging from subtle neurocognitive disturbances to life‑threatening organ failure. This review synthesizes current evidence on the biochemical mechanisms underlying thiamine’s actions, delineates the hallmark symptoms associated with deficiency, and highlights practical considerations for prevention and management.

Vitamin B7 (Biotin): Clinical Benefits, Deficiency Manifestations, and Practical Considerations

1. Introduction

Biotin, also known as vitamin B7 or holo‑thioate, is a water‑soluble member of the B‑vitamin complex that functions as an essential coenzyme for several carboxylase enzymes. Since its discovery in the early twentieth century, biotin has attracted considerable scientific interest owing to its ubiquitous presence in all living cells and its central role in energy metabolism, fatty‑acid synthesis, gluconeogenesis, and amino‑acid catabolism.